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<section id='abstract'>
<p>
A controlled identifier document contains cryptographic material and lists service
endpoints for the purposes of verifying cryptographic proofs from, and
interacting with, the controller of an identifier.
</p>
</section>
<section id='sotd'>
</section>
<section class="informative">
<h2>Introduction</h2>
<p>
[=Controlled identifier documents=] identify a [=subject=] and provide [=verification
methods=] that express public cryptographic material, such as [=public keys=],
for verifying [=proofs=] created on behalf of the [=subject=] for specific
purposes, such as authentication, attestation, key agreement (for encryption),
and capability invocation and delegation. [=Controlled identifier documents=] also list
[=service=] endpoints related to an [=identifier=]; for example, from which to
request additional information for verification.
</p>
<p>
In other words, the controlled identifier document contains the information necessary to
communicate with, and/or prove that specific actions were taken by, the
controller of an [=identifier=], including material for [=proofs=] and
[=service=] endpoints for additional communications.
</p>
<p>
A [=controlled identifier document=] specifies
[=verification relationships=] and [=service=] endpoints for a single
identifier, for which the current controlled identifier document is taken as authoritative.
</p>
<p>
Other specifications, such as the [[[?DID]]] specification, profile the
features that are defined in this specification, requiring and/or recommending
the use of some and prohibiting and/or deprecating the use of others.
</p>
<section>
<h3>Use Cases</h3>
<p>
The use cases below illustrate the need for this specification.
While many other related use cases exist, such as those in [[[DID-USE-CASES]]]
and [[[VC-USE-CASES]]], those described below are the main scenarios that this
specification is designed to address.
</p>
<section class="notoc">
<h4>Globally Unique Identifiers</h4>
<p>
Lemmy runs multiple enterprise portals that manage large amounts of sensitive
data submitted by people working for a variety of organizations. He would like
to use identifiers for entities in the databases that are provided by
his customers and do not depend on easily phishable information such as
email addresses and passwords.
</p>
</section>
<section class="notoc">
<h4>Cryptographic Verification</h4>
<p>
Lemmy would like to ensure that his customers prove control over their
identifiers — for example, by using public/private key cryptography
— in order to increase security related to who is allowed to access and
update each organization's data.
</p>
</section>
<section class="notoc">
<h4>Cryptographic Purpose</h4>
<p>
Stef, who operates a high security service, would like to ensure that certain
cryptographic keys used by his customers can only be used for specific purposes
(such as encryption, authorization, and/or authentication) to enable different
levels of access and protection for each type of cryptographic key.
</p>
</section>
<section class="notoc">
<h4>Service Engagement</h4>
<p>
Marge, a software developer, would like to publicly advertise ways in which
other people on the Web can reach her through various communication services she
uses based on her globally unique identifier(s).
</p>
</section>
<section class="notoc">
<h4>Extensibility</h4>
<p>
Cory, a systems architect, would like to extend the use cases described in this
section in a way that provides new functionality without creating conflicts
with extensions being added by others.
</p>
</section>
<section class="notoc">
<h4>Issue and Present Claims</h4>
<p>
Neru would like to issue digital credentials on behalf of her company that
contain claims about their employees. The claims that are made need to use
identifiers that are cryptographically attributable back to Neru's company and
need to allow for the holders of those credentials to be able to
cryptographically authenticate themselves when they present the credential.
</p>
</section>
</section>
<section>
<h3>Requirements</h3>
<p>
The following requirements are derived from the use cases described earlier in
this specification. Additional requirements which could lead to a more
decentralized solution can be found in [[[DID-USE-CASES]]].
</p>
<dl>
<dt>1. Guaranteed Unique Identifier</dt>
<dd>
Identifiers are globally unique with no possibility of duplication.
</dd>
<dt>2. Proof of Control</dt>
<dd>
It is possible to prove that the entity claiming control over the identifier is
indeed its controller.
</dd>
<dt>3. Associated cryptographic material</dt>
<dd>
The identifier is tightly coupled with cryptographic material that an entity
can use to prove control over that identifier.
</dd>
<dt>4. Streamlined key rotation</dt>
<dd>
Entities denoted by designated identifiers can update authentication materials
without direct intervention by requesting parties and with minimal individual
interaction.
</dd>
<dt>5. Service endpoint discovery</dt>
<dd>
These identifiers allow requesting parties to look up available service
endpoints for interacting with the subject of the identifier.
</dd>
<dt>6. Delegation of control</dt>
<dd>
The controller of the identifier is able to delegate that control, in full
and/or in part, to a third party.
</dd>
<dt>7. Cryptographically future-proof</dt>
<dd>
These identifiers and associated information are capable of being updated
as technology evolves. Current cryptographic techniques are known to be
susceptible to quantum computational attacks. Future-proofed identifiers
provide a means by which to continue using the same identifier with updated,
advanced authentication and/or authorization technologies.
</dd>
<dt>8. Cryptographic authentication and communication</dt>
<dd>
These identifiers enable the use of cryptographic techniques that can be employed
to authenticate individuals and/or to secure communications with the subject of
the identifier, typically using public-private key pairs.
</dd>
<dt>9. Legally recognizable identification</dt>
<dd>
These identifiers can be used as a basis for credentials and transactions that
can be recognized as legally valid under one or more jurisdictions.
</dd>
<dt>10. Human-centered interoperability</dt>
<dd>
Decentralized identifiers need to be easy to use by people with no technical
expertise or specialist knowledge.
</dd>
</dl>
</section>
<section id="conformance">
<p>
A <dfn>conforming controlled identifier document</dfn> is any concrete expression of the
data model that follows the relevant normative requirements in Sections
[[[#data-model]]] and [[[#contexts-and-vocabularies]]].
</p>
<p>
A <dfn>conforming verification method</dfn> is any concrete expression of the
data model that follows the relevant normative requirements in Sections
[[[#verification-methods]]] and
[[[#contexts-and-vocabularies]]].
</p>
<p>
A <dfn class="lint-ignore">conforming document</dfn> is either a
[=conforming controlled identifier document=], or a
[=conforming verification method=].
</p>
<p>
A <dfn class="lint-ignore">conforming processor</dfn> is any algorithm realized
as software and/or hardware that generates and/or consumes a
[=conforming document=] according to the relevant normative statements in
Section [[[#algorithms]]]. Conforming processors MUST produce errors
when non-conforming documents are consumed.
</p>
</section>
<section>
<h3>Terminology</h3>
<p>
This section defines the terms used in this specification. A link to the relevant
definition is included whenever one of these terms appears in this specification.
</p>
<dl class="termlist definitions" data-sort="ascending">
<dt><dfn>public key</dfn></dt>
<dd>
Cryptographic material that can be used to verify [=proofs=] created with a
corresponding [=private key=].
</dd>
<dt><dfn>private key</dfn></dt>
<dd>
Cryptographic material that can be used to generate [=proofs=].
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export">authentication</dfn></dt>
<dd>
A process by which an entity can prove to a verifier that it has a specific
attribute or controls a specific secret.
</dd>
<dt><dfn>proof</dfn></dt>
<dd>
A mathematical demonstration that confirms the validity of an assertion. The
demonstration consists of a set of properties and values that enable a verifier
to cryptographically validate the assertion. A
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature">digital signature</a>
is a type of proof.
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export">authorization</dfn></dt>
<dd>
A process by which an entity can prove to a verifier that it is allowed to
perform a specific activity.
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export" data-lt="cryptosuite">cryptographic suite</dfn></dt>
<dd>
A means of using specific cryptographic primitives
to achieve a particular security goal. These suites can
specify [=verification methods=], digital signature types,
their identifiers, and other related properties.<!-- See Section -->
<!-- [[[#cryptographic-suites]]] for further detail. -->
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export">controller</dfn></dt>
<dd>
<p>
An entity that is capable of performing an action with a specific resource, such
as updating a [=controlled identifier document=] or generating a [=proof=] using a
[=verification method=].
</p>
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export">controlled identifier</dfn></dt>
<dd>
<p>
A type of identifier that can be proven to be under the control of an entity.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export">controlled identifier document</dfn></dt>
<dd>
<p>
A document that contains cryptographic material and lists service endpoints that
can be used for verifying [=proofs=] from, and interacting with, the
[=controller=] of an identifier.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><dfn data-lt="subjects">subject</dfn></dt>
<dd>
<p>
An entity, such as a person, group, organization, physical thing, digital thing,
or logical thing that is referred to by the value of an `id` property in a
[=controlled identifier document=]. Subjects identified in a [=controlled identifier document=]
are also used as a subjects in other contexts, such as during
[=authentication=] or in [=verifiable credentials=].
</p>
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export">verification method</dfn></dt>
<dd>
<p>
A method and its parameters, used to independently verify a [=proof=]. For
example, a cryptographic public key can be used as a verification method with
respect to a digital signature; in such use, it verifies that the signer
used the associated cryptographic private key.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><dfn class="export">verification relationship</dfn></dt>
<dd>
<p>
An expression that one or more [=verification methods=] are authorized to verify
proofs made on behalf of the [=subject=]. One example of a verification
relationship is [[[#authentication]]].
</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</section>
</section>
<section>
<h3>Data Model</h3>
<p>
A [=controlled identifier document=] specifies one or more relationships between
an [=identifier=] and a set of [=verification methods=] and/or service
endpoints. The [=controlled identifier document=] SHOULD
contain [=verification relationships=] that explicitly permit the use of
certain [=verification methods=] for specific purposes.
</p>
<pre class="example nohighlight" title="Controlled Identifier Document in JSON-LD format using Multikey">
{
"@context": "https://www.w3.org/ns/cid/v1",
"id": "https://controller.example",
"authentication": [<span class="highlight">{
"id": "https://controller.example#authn-key-123",
"type": "Multikey",
"controller": "https://controller.example",
"publicKeyMultibase": "z6MkmM42vxfqZQsv4ehtTjFFxQ4sQKS2w6WR7emozFAn5cxu"
}</span>]
}
</pre>
<p>
The example above shows a valid JSON-LD [=controlled identifier document=]
that expresses a [=public key=] that can be used for the purposes of
[=authentication=] using the <a href="#Multikey">Multikey</a> format.
</p>
<pre class="example nohighlight" title="Controlled Identifier Document in JSON format using JsonWebKey">
{
"id": "https://controller.example/101",
"verificationMethod": [<span class="highlight">{
"id": "https://controller.example/101#key-20240828",
"type": "JsonWebKey",
"controller": "https://controller.example/101",
"publicKeyJwk": {
"kid": "key-20240828",
"kty": "EC",
"crv": "P-256",
"alg": "ES256",
"x": "f83OJ3D2xF1Bg8vub9tLe1gHMzV76e8Tus9uPHvRVEU",
"y": "x_FEzRu9m36HLN_tue659LNpXW6pCyStikYjKIWI5a0"
}
}</span>],
"authentication": ["#key-20240828"]
}
</pre>
<p>
The example above shows a valid JSON [=controlled identifier document=]
that expresses a [=public key=] that can be used for the purposes of
[=authentication=] using the <a href="#JsonWebKey">JsonWebKey</a> format.
</p>
<p class="note"
title="Property names used in map of different types">
The property names `id`, `type`, and `controller` can be present in map of
different types with possible differences in constraints.
</p>
<section>
<h2>Controlled Identifier Documents</h2>
<p>
The following sections define the properties in a [=controlled identifier document=],
including whether these properties are required or optional. These properties
describe relationships between the [=subject=] and the value of the
property.
</p>
<p>
The following tables contain informative references for the core properties
defined by this specification, with expected values, and whether or not they are
required. The property names in the tables are linked to the normative
definitions and more detailed descriptions of each property.
</p>
<table class="simple">
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Property</th>
<th>Required?</th>
<th>Value constraints</th>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">Definition</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>`id`</td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#string">string</a> that conforms to the URL syntax.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#subjects]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`controller`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#string">string</a> or a
<a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
<a data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>, each of which conforms to the URL
syntax.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#controllers]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`alsoKnownAs`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
<a data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>, each of which conforms to the URL
syntax.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#also-known-as]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`service`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of [=service=]
<a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">maps</a>.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#services]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`verificationMethod`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
[=verification method=] <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">maps</a>.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#verification-methods]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`authentication`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of <a
data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>, each of which conforms to
the URL syntax, or a <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
[=verification method=] <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">maps</a>.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#authentication]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`assertionMethod`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of <a
data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>, each of which conforms to
the URL syntax, or a <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
[=verification method=] <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">maps</a>.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#assertion]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`keyAgreement`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of <a
data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>, each of which conforms to
the URL syntax, or a <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
[=verification method=] <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">maps</a>.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#key-agreement]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`capabilityInvocation`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of <a
data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>, each of which conforms to
the URL syntax, or a <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
[=verification method=] <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">maps</a>.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#capability-invocation]]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>`capabilityDelegation`</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>
A <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of <a
data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>, each of which conforms to
the URL syntax, or a <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
[=verification method=] <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">maps</a>.
</td>
<td style="white-space: nowrap;">[[[#capability-delegation]]]</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<section>
<h3>Subjects</h3>
<p>
A [=subject=] is expressed using the `id` property in a [=controlled identifier document=].
The value of an `id` property is referred to as an <dfn>identifier</dfn>.
</p>
<dl>
<dt>id</dt>
<dd>
The value of `id` property MUST be a <a data-cite="INFRA#string">string</a> that
conforms to the rules in the [[[URL]]].
</dd>
</dl>
<p>
A [=controlled identifier document=] MUST contain an `id` value in the <em>topmost</em>
<a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">map</a>.
</p>
<pre class="example nohighlight" title="Usage of the `id` property">
{
"@context": "https://www.w3.org/ns/cid/v1",
<span class="highlight">"id": "https://controller.example"</span>,
"authentication": [{
"id": "https://controller.example#authn-key-123",
"type": "Multikey",
"controller": "https://controller.example",
"publicKeyMultibase": "z6MkmM42vxfqZQsv4ehtTjFFxQ4sQKS2w6WR7emozFAn5cxu"
}]
}
</pre>
<p>
The value of the `id` property in the <em>topmost</em>
<a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-map">map</a> of the [=controlled identifier document=] is
called the <dfn>base identifier</dfn> for the [=controlled identifier document=]. The URL
for retrieving the current, authoritative [=controlled identifier document=] for a given
[=identifier=] is called the <dfn>canonical URL</dfn> for the [=controlled identifier
document=]. Dereferencing the [=canonical URL=] MUST return the current
authoritative [=controlled identifier document=]. The returned document's [=base
identifier=] MUST be the same as the [=canonical URL=]; if it is anything else,
then the returned document is not an authoritative [=controlled identifier document=] and
the [=identifier=] SHOULD be treated as invalid. Every controlled identifier document is
stored and retrieved according to the [=canonical URL=] of the document, which
MUST also be the [=base identifier=] of the document.
</p>
<div class="note" title="Identifiers are context-dependent">
<p>
It is expected that the [=subject=] referred to by an `id` in a [=controlled identifier
document=] will be consistent over time, such that any [=verifiable
credentials=] that use them can be interpreted as referring to the same entity.
For example, it is preferred that an [=issuer=] of a [=verifiable credential=]
require that a [=subject=] demonstrate [=proof=] of control over their
[=identifier=] before issuing a credential with that [=identifier=] as
[=subject=], creating assurance that the same entity was involved in the
issuance of each credential with that [=identifier=] as [=subject=].
</p>
<p>
However, there are valid cases where that practice is either impossible or
unreasonable; for example, when a parent requests a [=verifiable credential=]
for their child. There are also cases where an [=issuer=] simply makes a mistake
or intentionally issues a false statement. All of these possibilities are
considered when evaluating the security impacts of reliance on a given
[=identifier=] for any given purpose. See Section [[[#identifier-ambiguity]]].
</p>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<h3>Controllers</h3>
<p>
A [=controller=] of a [=controlled identifier document=] is any entity capable of making changes to that
[=controlled identifier document=]. Whoever can update
the content of the resource returned from dereferencing the controller
document's canonical URL is, by definition, a controller of the
document and its canonical identifier. Proofs that satisfy a
[=controlled identifier document=]'s [=verification methods=] are taken as cryptographic
assurance that the [=controller=] of the [=identifier=] created those [=proofs=].
</p>
<p class="note" title="Identifier Controller versus Document Controller">
The [=controller=] of the [=controlled identifier document=] is taken to be the
[=controller=] of the document's canonical [=identifier=], also known as its
URL. That is, whoever can update the [=controlled identifier document=] is both
the document [=controller=] and the [=identifier=] [=controller=]. Updating the
document is how you control the [=identifier=]. These terms can be used
interchangeably. Controlling the canonical [=controlled identifier document=] for
an [=identifier=] is the same as controlling the [=identifier=].
</p>
<dl>
<dt>controller</dt>
<dd>
The `controller` property is OPTIONAL. If it is possible to represent
the legitimate controllers of the document as URLs, the document SHOULD
list URLs identifying those controllers.
<p class="note" title="Presumed Control">
It is possible to list a verification method which is
functionally under the control of someone other than the [=controller=]
of the [=controlled identifier document=]. For example, a document [=controller=] could
set a public key under another party's control as an authentication
verification method. This would enable the other party to authenticate
on behalf of this [=identifier=] (because their public key is listed in
an authentication verification method) <em>without</em> enabling that party
to update the [=controlled identifier document=]. However, since the document
[=controller=] explicitly listed that key for authentication, the
proof in question is taken as created by the document [=controller=], as
it was created by their explicit assignee. This is especially useful
when the "other party" is a device under the control of the document
controller, but with a distinct cryptographic authority, i.e., it
has its own keystore and can generate [=proofs=]. That pattern enables
different devices, each using their own cryptographic material, to
generate verifiable [=proofs=] that are taken as [=proofs=] created by
controller of the identifier.
</p>
If present, its value MUST be a
<a data-cite="INFRA#string">string</a> or a
<a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> of
<a data-cite="INFRA#string">strings</a>,
each of which conforms to the rules in the [[[URL]]].
</p>
<p>
Each entry in the `controller` property MUST identify
an entity capable of updating the canonical version
of the [=controlled identifier document=].
Subsequent requests for this [=controlled identifier document=] through its
canonical location will always receive the latest version.
</p>
<p>
If the `controller` property is not present, then control of the document
is determined entirely by its storage location.
</dd>
</dl>
<pre class="example nohighlight"
title="Controlled identifier document with a controller property">
{
"@context": "https://www.w3.org/ns/cid/v1",
"id": "https://controllerA.example",
<span class="highlight">"controller": "https://controllerB.example/abc"</span>,
"authentication": [{
"id": "https://controllerA.example#authn-key-123",
"type": "Multikey",
"controller": "https://controllerA.example",
"publicKeyMultibase": "z6MkmM42vxfqZQsv4ehtTjFFxQ4sQKS2w6WR7emozFAn5cxu"
}]
}
</pre>
<p>
While the [=identifier=] used for a [=controller=] is unambiguous, this does not
imply that a single entity is always the [=controller=], nor that a [=controller=]
only has a single identifier. A [=controller=] might be a single entity, or a
collection of entities, such as a partnership. A [=controller=] might also use
multiple identifiers to refer to itself, for purposes such as privacy or
delineating operational boundaries within an organization. Similarly, a
[=controller=] might control many [=verification methods=]. For these reasons,
no assumptions are to be made about a [=controller=] being a single entity nor
controlling only a single [=verification method=].
</p>
<p class="note" title="Authentication versus Authorization">
Note that the definition of [=authentication=] is different from the definition
of [=authorization=]. Generally speaking, [=authentication=] answers the
question of "Do we know who this is?" while [=authorization=] answers the question of "Are
they allowed to perform this action?". The `authentication` property in this
specification is used to, unsurprisingly, perform [=authentication=] while the
other [=verification relationships=] such as `capabilityDelegation` and
`capabilityInvocation` are used to perform [=authorization=]. Since successfully
performing [=authorization=] might have more serious effects on a system,
[=controllers=] are urged to use different [=verification methods=] when
performing [=authentication=] versus [=authorization=] and provide stronger
access protection for [=verification methods=] used for [=authorization=] versus
[=authentication=]. See [[[#security-considerations]]] for information related
to threat models and attack vectors.
</p>
</section>
<section>
<h3>Also Known As</h3>
<p>
A [=subject=] can have multiple identifiers that are used for different purposes
or at different times. The assertion that two or more identifiers (or other types
of URI) refer to the same [=subject=] can be made using the
`alsoKnownAs` property.
</p>
<dl>
<dt>alsoKnownAs</dt>
<dd>
The `alsoKnownAs` property is OPTIONAL. If present, its value MUST
be a <a data-cite="INFRA#ordered-set">set</a> where each item in the
set is a URI conforming to [[RFC3986]].
</dd>
</dl>
<p>
This relationship is a statement that the subject of this identifier is
also identified by one or more other identifiers.
</p>
<pre class="example nohighlight"
title="Controlled identifier document using an alsoKnownAs property">
{
"@context": "https://www.w3.org/ns/cid/v1",
"id": "https://controller.example",
<span class="highlight">"alsoKnownAs": [
"https://someOtherIdentifier.example/xyz",
"https://yetAnotherIdentifier.example/987"
]</span>,
"authentication": [{
"id": "https://controller.example#authn-key-123",
"type": "Multikey",
"controller": "https://controller.example",
"publicKeyMultibase": "z6MkmM42vxfqZQsv4ehtTjFFxQ4sQKS2w6WR7emozFAn5cxu"
}]
}
</pre>
<div class="note" title="Equivalence and alsoKnownAs">
<p>
Applications might choose to consider two identifiers related by `alsoKnownAs`
to be equivalent <em>if</em> the `alsoKnownAs` relationship expressed in the
controlled identifier document of one [=subject=] is also expressed in the reverse direction
(i.e., reciprocated) in the controlled identifier document of the other [=subject=]. It is
best practice <em>not</em> to consider them
equivalent in the absence of this reciprocating relationship. In other words,
the presence of an `alsoKnownAs` assertion does not prove that this assertion
is true. Therefore, it is strongly advised that a requesting party obtain
independent verification of an `alsoKnownAs` assertion.
</p>
<p>
Given that the [=subject=] might use different identifiers for different
purposes, such as enhanced privacy protection, an expectation of strong
equivalence between the two identifiers, or taking action to
merge the information from the two corresponding [=controlled identifier documents=], is
not necessarily appropriate, <em>even with</em> a reciprocal relationship.