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<!doctype html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8" />
<title> Proto-lajbɦahe Language </title>
<meta name="description" content=" A grammar of the Proto-lajbɦahe language " />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href=" common.css " />
</head>
<body>
<h1 class="title"> <span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> Language </h1>
<div id="__no-id-4" class=" toc"><p class="toc-heading">Table of Contents </p>
<ol>
<li><a href="#sec-1"> Phonology </a><ol>
<li><a href="#sec-1-1"> Syllables </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-1-2"> Accent </a></li>
<li><a href="#vowels"> Vowels </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-1-4"> Orthography </a></li>
</ol>
</li>
<li><a href="#sec-2"> Sentence Structure </a><ol>
<li><a href="#sec-2-1"> Coördination </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-2-2"> Relative Clauses </a></li>
</ol>
</li>
<li><a href="#sec-3"> Verbs </a><ol>
<li><a href="#sec-3-1"> Aspect </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-3-2"> Tense </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-3-3"> Personal Endings </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-3-4"> Mood </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-3-5"> Voice </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-3-6"> Negation </a></li>
</ol>
</li>
<li><a href="#sec-4"> Particles </a><ol>
<li><a href="#sec-4-1"> Numbers </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-4-2"> Prepositions and Adverbs </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-4-3"> Conjunctions </a></li>
</ol>
</li>
<li><a href="#sec-5"> Nouns </a><ol>
<li><a href="#sec-5-1"> Pronouns </a></li>
</ol>
</li>
<li><a href="#sec-6"> Example Sentences </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7"> Appendix </a><ol>
<li><a href="#sec-7-1"> Roots </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-2"> Verbal Derivational Endings </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-3"> Derived Verbs </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-4"> Nominalizers </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-5"> Secondary Nominal Endings </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-6"> Nouns </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-7"> Prepositions </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-8"> Quantifiers </a></li>
<li><a href="#sec-7-9"> Conjunctions </a></li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
<h1 id="sec-1" class=" "><span class="secnum">1.</span> Phonology </h1>
<h2 id="sec-1-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">1.</span>1.</span> Syllables </h2>
<h3 id="sec-1-1-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">1.</span>1.</span>1.</span> Consonants </h3>
<table id="consonants" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 1:</span> Consonants</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" "></th><th scope="colgroup" colspan="2" class=" ">Labial</th><th scope="colgroup" colspan="2" class=" ">Alveolar</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Palatal</th><th scope="colgroup" colspan="2" class=" ">Velar</th><th scope="colgroup" colspan="2" class=" ">Labiovelar</th><th scope="colgroup" colspan="2" class=" ">Glottal</th></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Plosive </th><td class=" ">p</td><td class=" ">b </td><td class=" ">t</td><td class=" ">d </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">k</td><td class=" ">g </td><td class=" ">kʷ</td><td class=" ">ɡʷ </td><td class=" ">ʔ</td><td class=" "></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Prenasalized Stop</th><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">ᵐb</td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">ⁿd </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">ᵑg</td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">ᵑɡʷ</td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Fricative </th><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">s</td><td class=" ">z </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">h</td><td class=" ">ɦ</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Nasal </th><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">m </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">n </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">ŋ </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">ŋʷ </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Approximant </th><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" ">l,r</td><td class=" ">j</td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "> </td><td class=" "></td></tr>
</table>
<p>Syllables must follow the sonorance hierarchy, with more sonorant elements falling closer to the nucleus than less sonorant elements. There are three categories of consonants as follows, from most to least sonorant: </p>
<ul id="__no-id-6" class=""><li> Approximants and nasals</li>
<li> Fricatives</li>
<li> Plosives and prenasalized stops</li>
</ul>
<p>Syllables consist of an onset of one or two consonants, followed by a vowel, followed by zero to two consonants. If both a plosive and a fricative are present, they must agree in voice. Nasal consonants cannot come immediately before prenasalized stops in the same syllable. </p>
<h2 id="sec-1-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">1.</span>2.</span> Accent </h2>
<p>Words in <span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> can either have a <em class=" ">mobile</em> accent, meaning the location of the accent varies throughout the inflectional paradigm, or a <em class=" ">static</em> accent, meaning the location of the accent is fixed on a particular syllable. In words with a mobile accent, the accent falls on the last syllable with a vowel other than <span class=" conlang">ə</span>. If no such syllable exists, the word lacks an accent. In words with a static accent, it will be marked with an acute accent (´). </p>
<h2 id="vowels" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">1.</span>3.</span> Vowels </h2>
<p>There are four phonemic vowels in <span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span>: <span class=" conlang">ə</span>, <span class=" conlang">e</span>, <span class=" conlang">o</span>, and <span class=" conlang">a</span>. <span class=" conlang">ə</span> can only occur in unaccented syllables; the rest can occur anywhere. </p>
<h2 id="sec-1-4" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">1.</span>4.</span> Orthography </h2>
<p><span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> was never a written language, so we are free to use whatever transcription scheme we find most convenient. This document will denote consonants as listed on <a class="reference " href="#consonants">table 1</a>, with the following exceptions: </p>
<ul id="__no-id-11" class=""><li> <span class=" conlang">g</span> and <span class=" conlang">gʷ</span> instead of ɡ and ɡʷ</li>
<li> <span class=" conlang">mb nd ŋg ŋgʷ</span> instead of ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ ᵑɡʷ</li>
</ul>
<p>Vowels will be transcribed as in <a class="reference " href="#vowels">section <span class=" secnum"><span class=" secnum"></span>1.</span>3.</a>. </p>
<h1 id="sec-2" class=" "><span class="secnum">2.</span> Sentence Structure </h1>
<p><span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> has a default word order of verb–subject–object. However, since nouns are marked for case, the elements can be rearranged for emphasis. </p>
<h2 id="sec-2-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">2.</span>1.</span> Coördination </h2>
<p>In <span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span>, multiple nouns, or multiple verbs, can be chained together to form a single element of a sentence, without any connecting words. </p>
<h3 id="sec-2-1-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">2.</span>1.</span>1.</span> Nouns </h3>
<p>Nouns in coördination have two possible meanings. In the first meaning, called <em class=" ">attributive coördination</em>, the nouns all refer to the same thing, providing additional specification or description. In this case, all the nouns must agree in case and (usually) number. In the second meaning, called <em class=" ">comitative coördination</em>, the nouns refer to separate things, which together fill the role in the sentence. In this case, the nouns must agree in case, but not necessarily in number, and may not appear in the dual number. </p>
<h3 id="sec-2-1-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">2.</span>1.</span>2.</span> Verbs </h3>
<p>Verbs in coördination also have two possible meanings. When the first verb is imperfective, the verbs typically refer to actions or states which are happening at the same time. This is called <em class=" ">concurrent coördination</em>. Some verbs, such as <span class=" conlang">nand</span> ‘to do slowly’, when used this way, have the effect of modifying the following verb. When the first verb is perfective, the verbs typically refer to sequential events, or states which result from actions. This is called <em class=" ">sequential coördination</em>. </p>
<h2 id="sec-2-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">2.</span>2.</span> Relative Clauses </h2>
<p>Relative clauses are marked with the conjunction <span class=" conlang">zəj</span>, which joins a noun to a relative clause. In the relative clause, if the head noun fills the role of subject or direct object, it can be dropped. Otherwise, an appropriate pronoun is used to fill the gap. </p>
<div id="__no-id-19" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 1:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> rəhkəs nájslar məwhəs zəj janwəs ɦesp.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">rəh</dt><dd class="">go</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəs</dt><dd class="">-3s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">nájs</dt><dd class="">live</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-lar</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">loc</span></dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">məwh</dt><dd class="">man</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-əs</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">zəj</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">rel</span></dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">jan</dt><dd class="">see</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-wəs</dt><dd class="">-1s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">ɦesp</dt><dd class="">yesterday</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> The man that I saw yesterday went home.</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-20" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 2:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> tnekdéhkəh məwhhè zəj tráwəs howtləjdhè kra.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">tnek</dt><dd class="">be ill</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-déh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">inch</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">pas</span>.3s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">məwh</dt><dd class="">man</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-hè</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">acc</span>.s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">zəj</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">rel</span></dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">trá</dt><dd class="">give</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-wəs</dt><dd class="">-1s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">howtləjd</dt><dd class="">tea</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-hè</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">ac</span>.s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">krа</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">pn</span>.3.<span class="small-caps ">loc</span>.s</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> The man that I gave the tea to got sick.</p>
</div>
<h1 id="sec-3" class=" "><span class="secnum">3.</span> Verbs </h1>
<p>The basic form of a conjugated verb is stem + personal endings, where the stem consists of a root with zero or more derivational endings. The personal ending conveys person, number, and voice, while the derivational endings provide aspect information. </p>
<h2 id="sec-3-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">3.</span>1.</span> Aspect </h2>
<p>Each root is a associated with a default aspect. To form other aspects, derivational suffixes are added. Some of the most common suffixes are shown in <a class="reference " href="#aspect-suffixes">table 2</a>. Because these suffixes are derivational in nature, they might also change the meaning of the verb. For example, the verb <span class=" conlang">jan</span> ‘to see’ becomes <span class=" conlang">jandéh</span> ‘to notice’ in the inchoative aspect. </p>
<table id="aspect-suffixes" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 2:</span> Aspect Suffixes</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" conlang"><span class=" not-conlang">Ending</span></th><th scope="col" class=" ">Aspect</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang">-jo </td><td class=" ">Retrospective – the state resulting from an action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang">-hemb </td><td class=" ">Habitual – an action repeated over a long period of time</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang">-ʔraŋgʷ</td><td class=" ">Continuous – an ongoing action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang">-bet </td><td class=" ">Momentane – a single instance of an action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang">-dəl </td><td class=" ">Aorist – a normally continuous action viewed as a whole</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang">-déh </td><td class=" ">Inchoative – the start of an action or state</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang">-kʷoz </td><td class=" ">Cessative – the end of an action or state</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-3-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">3.</span>2.</span> Tense </h2>
<p>Verbs in <span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> are not explicitly marked for tense. Instead, aspect plays a much more important role. Perfective aspects, which refer to a single action, event, or point in time, are implicitly past tense, since they can never occur in the exact moment of the present – by the time the speaker has finished, the moment will have passed. Imperfective aspects, on the other hand, are more ambiguous as to tense. Generally, they are assumed to refer to the present. To specify a past tense meaning, context can be given thru adverbs or perfective verbs, or a perfective aspect can be used instead. </p>
<h2 id="sec-3-3" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">3.</span>3.</span> Personal Endings </h2>
<p>There are two sets of personal endings, one for the active voice, and one for the passive voice. Inanimate nouns do not have a nominative form, so there are no active endings for third person inanimate. The impersonal ending, <span class=" conlang">-ɦàs</span>, is neither active nor passive in meaning. The personal endings are shown on <a class="reference " href="#verb-personal-endings">table 3</a>. </p>
<table id="verb-personal-endings" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 3:</span> Verb Personal Endings</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" ">Person</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Number</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Active</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Passive</th></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Impersonal </th><th scope="row" class=" ">— </th><td colspan="2" class=" conlang"><span class=" conlang">-ɦàs</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3" class=" ">First Person </th><th scope="row" class=" ">Singular</th><td class=" conlang">-wəs </td><td class=" conlang">-wèh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Dual </th><td class=" conlang">-ʔès </td><td class=" conlang">-ʔèh</td></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Plural </th><td class=" conlang">-thəh</td><td class=" conlang">-thəhəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3" class=" ">Second Person </th><th scope="row" class=" ">Singular</th><td class=" conlang">-sàns</td><td class=" conlang">-sànhè</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Dual </th><td class=" conlang">-snəj</td><td class=" conlang">-snəj</td></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Plural </th><td class=" conlang">-səh </td><td class=" conlang">-səhəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3" class=" ">Third Person (Animate) </th><th scope="row" class=" ">Singular</th><td class=" conlang">-kəs </td><td class=" conlang">-kəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Dual </th><td class=" conlang">-kjə </td><td class=" conlang">-kjə</td></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Plural </th><td class=" conlang">-kəh </td><td class=" conlang">-khəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3" class=" ">Third Person (Inanimate)</th><th scope="row" class=" ">Singular</th><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">-tòh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Dual </th><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">-tòj</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Plural </th><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">-tòhəh</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-3-4" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">3.</span>4.</span> Mood </h2>
<p><span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> has two moods, the indicative and the subjunctive. The indicative is unmarked. The subjunctive is marked by the suffix <span class=" conlang">-rə</span>, inserted between the stem and the personal ending. </p>
<p>The indicative mood is used when describing real facts or events in the present or past. The subjunctive is used in conditionals, imperatives, and as a future tense. </p>
<h2 id="sec-3-5" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">3.</span>5.</span> Voice </h2>
<p><span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> has two voices, active and passive, as well as a third form, the impersonal. The active voice is used when the subject of the verb is the willful agent of the action. Because the active voice requires volition, inanimate nouns can never be the subject of an active verb. In the active voice, the subject takes the nominative case. The passive voice is used when the subject of the verb is the patient, target, or experiencer of the action. In the passive voice, the subject takes the accusative case. The impersonal is used when there is neither a willful agent nor a specific target of the action. It is frequently used in weather expressions. It is also used when there is a non-willful (particularly inanimate) agent. In this usage, the agent takes the instrumental case if it is inamiate, or the genitive case if it is animate. However animate agents in impersonal constructions are rare; instead, they are often replaced with an inanimate equivalent, or the active voice is used. </p>
<h2 id="sec-3-6" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">3.</span>6.</span> Negation </h2>
<p>Negation is expressed using the prefix <span class=" conlang">həs</span>. </p>
<h1 id="sec-4" class=" "><span class="secnum">4.</span> Particles </h1>
<p>Particles are roots which are used on their own, without inflectional endings. Unlike verbal and nominal roots, particle roots can exist as stand-alone words. </p>
<h2 id="sec-4-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">4.</span>1.</span> Numbers </h2>
<p>Numbers one thru four are invariant, and are shown on <a class="reference " href="#numbers">table 4</a>. <span class=" conlang">sah</span>, acts like a noun, and can be translated as ‘a group of five’. It agrees with the head noun in case, tho in numbers five thru nine, it is singular, while the head noun is plural. This construction is an instance of attributive coördination. Numbers six thru nine are formed with <span class=" conlang">sah</span>, followed by a number one thru four, followed by the noun. The noun agrees in number with the last numeral, so six takes a singular noun, and seven takes a dual noun. When such a noun phrase is the subject of a verb, the verb is still plural. </p>
<p>Numbers greater than nine are formed in various ways at different points in time, and in different areas. There are three systems: the pure quinary system, the pure decimal system, and the mixed system. </p>
<h3 id="sec-4-1-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">4.</span>1.</span>1.</span> Quinary System </h3>
<p>In the quinary system, numbers greater than nine are formed with the number of fives, followed by an inflected form of <span class=" conlang">sah</span>, followed by the remainder (one thru four). Ten is <span class=" conlang">ləj sah</span>, with <span class=" conlang">sah</span> in the dual; fifteen is <span class=" conlang">tjeh sah</span>, with <span class=" conlang">sah</span> in the plural; and so on. Twenty five is <span class=" conlang">sah sah</span>, with the first <span class=" conlang">sah</span> in the singular, and the second one in the plural. Exact numbers beyond fifty or so are uncommon, and <span class=" conlang">gʷew</span> (which functions like a noun similarly to <span class=" conlang">sah</span>) can refer to any arbitrarily large number. </p>
<h3 id="sec-4-1-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">4.</span>1.</span>2.</span> Decimal System </h3>
<p>In the decimal system, <span class=" conlang">khen</span>, translatable as ‘a group of ten’, acts like <span class=" conlang">sah</span>. Numbers greater than nine are formed with the number of tens, followed by an inflected form of <span class=" conlang">khen</span>, followed by the ones digit, formed identically to one thru nine. <span class=" conlang">gʷew</span> specifically means a hundred. </p>
<h3 id="sec-4-1-3" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">4.</span>1.</span>3.</span> Mixed System </h3>
<p>The mixed system takes elements from both the decimal system and the quinary system. For small numbers (usually less than 30, tho the exact cut-off can vary), the decimal system is used for numbers ending in 0--4, while the quinary system is used for numbers ending in 5--9. For larger numbers, the decimal system is used. </p>
<table id="numbers" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 4:</span> Invariant Numbers</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" ">Number</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Word</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" ">1</td><td class=" conlang">rən</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" ">2</td><td class=" conlang">ləj</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" ">3</td><td class=" conlang">tjeh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" ">4</td><td class=" conlang">pət</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-4-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">4.</span>2.</span> Prepositions and Adverbs </h2>
<p>Prepositions are placed before nouns to form indirect objects as well as temporal and spacial modifiers for verbs. Each preposition governs one or more cases. Prepositions which govern multiple cases generally take on distinct meanings for each case. Adverbs are like prepositions, except they lack an object, and modify the verb on their own. </p>
<h2 id="sec-4-3" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">4.</span>3.</span> Conjunctions </h2>
<p>Conjunctions join two elements of a sentence. They generally only join elements of the same type (i.e. two nouns or two verbs). The main exception to this rule is the conjunction <span class=" conlang">zəj</span>, which joins a noun to a relative clause. </p>
<h1 id="sec-5" class=" "><span class="secnum">5.</span> Nouns </h1>
<p>Nouns are generally formed by adding a nominalizing ending to a verbal root, although some roots can be used on their own as nouns. Nouns decline for three numbers: singular, dual, and plural, and five cases: nominative, accusative, instrumental, genitive, and locative. The nominative is only found in animate nouns, and serves as the subject of a verb. The accusative serves as the object of a verb. The instrumental is only found in inanimate nouns, and indicates the means of an action. The genitive can be translated as ‘from’ or ‘of’, and is used for motion away from, and certain types of possession. In the dual, or in comitative coördination, the genitive can also be used to mean ‘between’. The locative can be translated as ‘to’ or ‘at’, and indicates motion towards, location, other types of possession. In addition to their standalone meanings, different cases are used as the objects of prepositions, and verbs may have specific uses for the genitive and locative cases. The endings are given in <a class="reference " href="#noun-endings">table 5</a>. </p>
<p>Because inanimate nouns lack a nominative case, they can't be the subject of a sentence. Instead, they are placed in the instrumental case, and the impersonal form of the verb is used: </p>
<div id="__no-id-42" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 3:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> kénjoɦas lomlarja məwhtəhjə.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">kén</dt><dd class="">separate</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-jo</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">ret</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-ɦàs</dt><dd class="">-0</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">lomlar</dt><dd class="">mountain</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-ja</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">ins</span>.s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">məwh</dt><dd class="">person</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-təh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">col</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-jə</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">acc</span>.d</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> The mountain separates the two peoples.</p>
</div>
<table id="noun-endings" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 5:</span> Noun Endings</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" ">Case</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Singular</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Dual</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Plural</th></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative </th><td class=" conlang">(ə)s<span class=" not-conlang tnote">1</span></td><td class=" conlang">jə </td><td class=" conlang">(ə)h<span class=" not-conlang tnote">1</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative </th><td class=" conlang">hè<span class=" not-conlang tnote">2</span> </td><td class=" conlang">jə </td><td class=" conlang">həh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Instrumental</th><td class=" conlang">ja </td><td class=" conlang">jaj</td><td class=" conlang">jah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">(a)j<span class=" not-conlang tnote">1</span></td><td class=" conlang">za </td><td class=" conlang">(a)jh<span class=" not-conlang tnote">1</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">ra </td><td class=" conlang">raj</td><td class=" conlang">rah</td></tr>
</table>
<ol id="__no-id-43" class="table-notes"><li>Unlike unlike normal endings, these ending do not start with consonants. If they are added to an ending without a final consonant, their vowels are dropped.</li>
<li>The grave accent indicates that this ending cannot be stressed.</li>
</ol>
<h2 id="sec-5-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">5.</span>1.</span> Pronouns </h2>
<h3 id="sec-5-1-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">5.</span>1.</span>1.</span> Personal Pronouns </h3>
<p>There are first and second person pronouns, as well as several sets of demonstratives that function as third person pronouns. Since subjects are marked on verbs, the nominative case of the pronouns are only used when two subjects appear in comitative coördination (e.g. “You and I …”). The dual number cannot be used in this type of coördination, and therefore the personal pronouns lack a nominative in the dual. The forms of the pronouns are shown on <a class="reference " href="#personal-pronouns">table 6</a>. </p>
<table id="personal-pronouns" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 6:</span> Personal Pronouns</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" ">Person</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Case</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Singular</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Dual</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Plural</th></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="4" class=" ">First Person </th><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative</th><td class=" conlang">wəs </td><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">thəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative</th><td class=" conlang">weh </td><td class=" conlang">ʔehè </td><td class=" conlang">thəhəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">waj </td><td class=" conlang">ʔeza </td><td class=" conlang">thajh</td></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">wəra </td><td class=" conlang">ʔera </td><td class=" conlang">thərah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="4" class=" ">Second Person</th><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative</th><td class=" conlang">sáns </td><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">səh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative</th><td class=" conlang">sánhe</td><td class=" conlang">snəj </td><td class=" conlang">səhəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">sánaj</td><td class=" conlang">sánza </td><td class=" conlang">sánajh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">sánra</td><td class=" conlang">sánraj</td><td class=" conlang">sánrah</td></tr>
</table>
<h3 id="sec-5-1-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">5.</span>1.</span>2.</span> Demonstratives </h3>
<p><span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> has three sets of demonstratives. The first, with a stem of <span class=" conlang">k.-</span>, is an animate anaphoric demonstrative, meaning that it refers to an animate noun (generally a person or animal) that has already been referred to. The second, with a stem of <span class=" conlang">to-</span>, is an inanimate anaphoric demonstrative, referring to a previously mentioned inanimate noun. The third, the indefinite pronoun, has a stem of <span class=" conlang">ɦa-</span>, and can refer to people or things in the abstract (i.e. ‘someone’), or introduce new nouns thru gesturing or relative clauses: </p>
<div id="__no-id-46" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 4:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> hróŋgkəh weh ɦah zəj kálpkeht nájskʷozrəweh.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">hróŋg</dt><dd class="">frighten</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəh</dt><dd class="">-3p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">weh</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">pn</span>.1.<span class="small-caps ">acc</span>.s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">ɦah</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">ndef</span>.<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">zəj</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">rel</span></dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">kálp</dt><dd class="">wish</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-keht</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">prs</span>.3p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">nájskʷoz</dt><dd class="">die</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-rə</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">subj</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-wèh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">pas</span>.1s</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> Those who wish me dead frighten me.</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-47" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 5:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> həstekwò ɦahè.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">həs-</dt><dd class="">not-</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">tek</dt><dd class="">[care about]</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-wò</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">prs</span>.1s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">ɦahè</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">ndef</span>.<span class="small-caps ">acc</span>.s</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> I don't care about that.</p>
</div>
<table id="demonstrative-pronouns" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 7:</span> Demonstrative Pronouns</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" ">Pronoun</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Case</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Singular</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Dual</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Plural</th></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="5" class=" ">Animate </th><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative </th><td class=" conlang">kəs </td><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">kəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative </th><td class=" conlang">keh </td><td class=" conlang">kjə </td><td class=" conlang">khəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Instrumental</th><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">—</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">kaj </td><td class=" conlang">ksa </td><td class=" conlang">kajh</td></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">kra </td><td class=" conlang">kraj </td><td class=" conlang">krah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="5" class=" ">Inanimate </th><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative </th><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">—</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative </th><td class=" conlang">tóhe</td><td class=" conlang">tójə </td><td class=" conlang">tóhəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Instrumental</th><td class=" conlang">tója</td><td class=" conlang">tójaj</td><td class=" conlang">tójah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">tój </td><td class=" conlang">tóza </td><td class=" conlang">tójh</td></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">tóra</td><td class=" conlang">tóraj</td><td class=" conlang">tórah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="5" class=" ">Indefinite</th><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative </th><td class=" conlang">ɦas </td><td class=" conlang">ɦaj </td><td class=" conlang">ɦah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative </th><td class=" conlang">ɦahè</td><td class=" conlang">ɦjə </td><td class=" conlang">ɦəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Instrumental</th><td class=" conlang">ɦja </td><td class=" conlang">ɦjaj </td><td class=" conlang">ɦjah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">ɦaj </td><td class=" conlang">ɦəza </td><td class=" conlang">ɦajh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">ɦra </td><td class=" conlang">ɦraj </td><td class=" conlang">ɦrah</td></tr>
</table>
<h3 id="sec-5-1-3" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">5.</span>1.</span>3.</span> Reflexive Pronouns </h3>
<p>In addition to the personal and demonstrative pronouns, <span class=" "> Proto-<span class=" conlang">lajbɦahe</span></span> also has a reflexive pronoun, which is used to refer back to the subject. Because it must refer back to the subject of the sentence, it lacks nominative forms. It is also necessarily animate (since inanimate nouns can't be subjects), so it lacks instrumental forms. It is prototypically third person, although it can refer to first or second person subjects thru coördination with the corresponding personal pronoun. The forms of the reflexive pronouns are shown on <a class="reference " href="#other-pronouns">table 8</a>. </p>
<table id="other-pronouns" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 8:</span> Other Pronouns</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class=" ">Pronoun</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Case</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Singular</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Dual</th><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang">Plural</th></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="5" class=" ">Reflexive </th><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative </th><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">—</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative </th><td class=" conlang">deh </td><td class=" conlang">djə </td><td class=" conlang">dəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Instrumental</th><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">— </td><td class=" conlang">—</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">daj </td><td class=" conlang">dza </td><td class=" conlang">dajh</td></tr>
<tr class="underrule"><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">dra </td><td class=" conlang">draj </td><td class=" conlang">drah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="5" class=" ">Interrogative</th><th scope="row" class=" ">Nominative </th><td class=" conlang">dwətəs</td><td class=" conlang">dwətjə </td><td class=" conlang">dwətəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Accusative </th><td class=" conlang">dwəthe</td><td class=" conlang">dwətjə </td><td class=" conlang">dwəthəh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Instrumental</th><td class=" conlang">dwətja</td><td class=" conlang">dwətjaj</td><td class=" conlang">dwətjah</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Genitive </th><td class=" conlang">dwətaj</td><td class=" conlang">dwətza </td><td class=" conlang">dwətajh</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" class=" ">Locative </th><td class=" conlang">dwətra</td><td class=" conlang">dwətraj</td><td class=" conlang">dwətrah</td></tr>
</table>
<h1 id="sec-6" class=" "><span class="secnum">6.</span> Example Sentences </h1>
<div id="__no-id-50" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 6:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> slojwəs deh weh.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">sloj</dt><dd class="">clean</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-wəs</dt><dd class="">-1s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">deh</dt><dd class=""><span class="small-caps ">rfl</span>.<span class="small-caps ">acc</span>.s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">weh</dt><dd class="">1s.<span class="small-caps ">acc</span></dd></dl><p class="postamble"> I washed (myself).</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-51" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 7:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> mbakkəh dlew məwhəh.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">mbak</dt><dd class="">shout</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəh</dt><dd class="">-3p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">dlew</dt><dd class="">all</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">məwh</dt><dd class="">person</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-əh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.p</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> All of the people shouted.</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-52" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 8:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> mbakkəh həsdlew məwhəh.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">mbak</dt><dd class="">shout</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəh</dt><dd class="">-3p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">həs-</dt><dd class="">not-</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">dlew</dt><dd class="">all</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">məwh</dt><dd class="">person</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-əh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.p</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> Some of the people shouted.</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-53" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 9:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> mbakləjbetkəh the məwhəh.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">mbak</dt><dd class="">shout</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-ləj</dt><dd class="">-2</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-bet</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">pfv</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəh</dt><dd class="">-3p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">the</dt><dd class="">many</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">məwh</dt><dd class="">person</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-əh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.p</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> Many of the people shouted twice.</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-54" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 10:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> mbakhembkəh məwhəh sájktwasəh.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">mbak</dt><dd class="">shout</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-hemb</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">hab</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəh</dt><dd class="">-3p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">məwh</dt><dd class="">person</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-əh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">sájk</dt><dd class="">enjoy</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-twas</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">exp</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-əh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.p</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> Happy people often shout.</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-55" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 11:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> rəhrəsàns wəra!</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">rəh</dt><dd class="">go</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-rə</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">subj</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-sàns</dt><dd class="">-2s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">wəra</dt><dd class="">1s.<span class="small-caps ">loc</span></dd></dl><p class="postamble"> Come here!</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-56" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 12:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> patkəh gɦelŋgerəh ŋʷop təlŋgerra.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">pat</dt><dd class="">seated</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-kəh</dt><dd class="">-3s</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">gɦel</dt><dd class="">camp</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-ŋger</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">agt</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-əh</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">nom</span>.p</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">ŋʷop</dt><dd class="">around</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">təlŋger</dt><dd class="">fire</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-ra</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">loc</span>.s</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> The campers sit around the fire.</p>
</div>
<div id="__no-id-57" class="gloss "><p class="gloss-heading"><span class="gloss-heading-prefix">Gloss 13:</span> </p>
<p class="preamble"><span class=" conlang"> həsphetɦàs hməjgtjórrəsəh.</span></p>
<dl><dt class="conlang">həs-</dt><dd class="">not-</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">phet</dt><dd class="">able</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-ɦàs</dt><dd class="">-0</dd></dl> <dl><dt class="conlang">hməjg</dt><dd class="">smoke</dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-tjór</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">caus</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-rə</dt><dd class="">-<span class="small-caps ">subj</span></dd></dl><dl><dt class="conlang">-səh</dt><dd class="">-2p</dd></dl><p class="postamble"> No smoking.</p>
</div>
<h1 id="sec-7" class=" "><span class="secnum">7.</span> Appendix </h1>
<h2 id="sec-7-1" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>1.</span> Roots </h2>
<table id="__no-id-59" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 9:</span> Roots</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">bet</td><td class=" ">to try</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">brág</td><td class=" ">to be brown, to be dull</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mbak</td><td class=" ">to shout, to make a loud sound</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mbled</td><td class=" ">to age</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mbwó</td><td class=" ">to be strong</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dlán</td><td class=" ">to turn, to roll</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dlék</td><td class=" ">to decide</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dlew</td><td class=" ">to fill</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dmé</td><td class=" ">to eat</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dol</td><td class=" ">to fill</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ndná</td><td class=" ">to be green, to be fertile</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ndwəl</td><td class=" ">to branch multiple times (habitual, impersonal)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gazd</td><td class=" ">to be hard, to be sharp</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gɦel</td><td class=" ">to set up camp</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gow</td><td class=" ">to sail, to travel by boat</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋgez</td><td class=" ">to dance</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋglé</td><td class=" ">to swim (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gʷáʔ</td><td class=" ">to lead</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋgʷnam</td><td class=" ">to beg for</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hajb</td><td class=" ">to be patient (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">halh</td><td class=" ">to be yellow, (of a plant) to be ready for harvest</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">har</td><td class=" ">to be blue</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hems</td><td class=" ">to bleed</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">həst</td><td class=" ">to press, to flatten</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hət</td><td class=" ">to put, to place</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hlowk</td><td class=" ">to milk a cow (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hməjg</td><td class=" ">to give off (a lot of) smoke, to smoke</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">howt</td><td class=" ">to boil</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hré</td><td class=" ">to draw (perfective)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hrəj</td><td class=" ">to freeze</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hrəwt</td><td class=" ">to tie up, to capture</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hróŋg</td><td class=" ">to threaten</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hwən</td><td class=" ">to sleep</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hwəs</td><td class=" ">to blow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hwəws</td><td class=" ">to snow (generally used in the impersonal)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jan</td><td class=" ">to see</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jejz</td><td class=" ">to light a fire, (in the impersonal) the sun rose</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jək</td><td class=" ">to shrink, to withdraw</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kah</td><td class=" ">to know (a person)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kálp</td><td class=" ">to need, to lack, to want</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">káw</td><td class=" ">to rain (generally used in impersonal)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kén</td><td class=" ">to separate, to divide</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kéz</td><td class=" ">to fix or make with metal</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kjet</td><td class=" ">to argue (usually used in the dual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kses</td><td class=" ">to drink</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ksə</td><td class=" ">to crumble</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ksol</td><td class=" ">to fight</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kʷərk</td><td class=" ">to twist, to bend</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kʷə</td><td class=" ">to cut, to shorten</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kʷlek</td><td class=" ">to work</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kʷoj</td><td class=" ">to injure <span class="small-caps ">acc</span>, to injure <span class="small-caps ">acc</span> in their <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">laj</td><td class=" ">to speak</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lár</td><td class=" ">to arrive at <span class="small-caps ">acc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">láw</td><td class=" ">to be dark</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">logʷ</td><td class=" ">to warm</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lom</td><td class=" ">to shadow, to dwarf</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lówt</td><td class=" ">to extend over an area</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mám</td><td class=" ">to give birth</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mánh</td><td class=" ">to love</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">məwh</td><td class=" ">to be a person</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mort</td><td class=" ">to change (impersonal, continous), (without an object) time passes</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nand</td><td class=" ">to do slowly</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nájs</td><td class=" ">to be alive, to live at <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋán</td><td class=" ">to blossom, to bloom</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋoh</td><td class=" ">to hide (transitive, perfective), to shelter</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋʷok</td><td class=" ">to follow, to be second</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pat</td><td class=" ">to be seated</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pend</td><td class=" ">to throw</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pekʷ</td><td class=" ">to satisfy (perfective)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pə</td><td class=" ">to carry, to pull</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">phés</td><td class=" ">to peel, to remove <span class="small-caps ">acc</span> from the surface of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">phet</td><td class=" ">to be able to</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pját</td><td class=" ">to lie (tell a falsehood)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pláh</td><td class=" ">to fly</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ploh</td><td class=" ">to leak (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">prajs</td><td class=" ">to stand out (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">preg</td><td class=" ">to be thin, to be narrow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pset</td><td class=" ">to flow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pwáms</td><td class=" ">to forgive, to forget, to lose</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ʔál</td><td class=" ">to create, to invent (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ʔá</td><td class=" ">to arrange, to count</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ʔlójk</td><td class=" ">to finish a task</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ʔna</td><td class=" ">to drop</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ráh</td><td class=" ">to put on clothing, to wear</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">rez</td><td class=" ">to heal (transitive)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">rəh</td><td class=" ">to go, to traverse <span class="small-caps ">acc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">rów</td><td class=" ">to be first</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sah</td><td class=" ">to grasp (perfective)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sájk</td><td class=" ">to enjoy (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">səs</td><td class=" ">to be white</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sláh</td><td class=" ">to teach <span class="small-caps ">acc</span> to <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sloj</td><td class=" ">to purify, to clean (perfective)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">srəhk</td><td class=" ">to shine</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">swoj</td><td class=" ">to moisten</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tek</td><td class=" ">to value, to care about</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">təkʷ</td><td class=" ">to be on the opposite side of</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">təl</td><td class=" ">to burn, to cook</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tət</td><td class=" ">to be straight, to be direct</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">thed</td><td class=" ">to wake up</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">thəlh</td><td class=" ">to know (a fact)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tjan</td><td class=" ">to obtain</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tnek</td><td class=" ">to be ill</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tok</td><td class=" ">to do quickly</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">trá</td><td class=" ">to give</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tsáj</td><td class=" ">to hunt</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">twəl</td><td class=" ">to fix or make with clay or pottery</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">wájg</td><td class=" ">to hear</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">wá</td><td class=" ">to enlarge, to grow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">wert</td><td class=" ">to search for</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">wət</td><td class=" ">to walk</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">zesp</td><td class=" ">to ford a river</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-2" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>2.</span> Verbal Derivational Endings </h2>
<table id="__no-id-61" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 10:</span> Verbal Derivational Endings</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-bet</td><td class=" ">Momentane aspect – a single instance of an action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-déh</td><td class=" ">Inchoative aspect – entering into a state, or the start of an action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-dəl</td><td class=" ">Aorist aspect – a normally continuous action viewed as a whole</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-dwens</td><td class=" ">Benefactive – an action done on behalf of someone or something. The object of the original verb is placed in the genitive, and the benefactor in the accusative.</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-hemb</td><td class=" ">Habitual aspect – an action repeated over a long period of time</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-jed</td><td class=" ">Intensive; superlative</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-jo</td><td class=" ">Retrospective aspect – the state resulting from an action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-kʷoz</td><td class=" ">Cessative aspect – the end of an action or state</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-ʔraŋgʷ</td><td class=" ">Continuous aspect – an ongoing action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-tjór</td><td class=" ">Causative – causing someone or something to perform an action or enter a state. The subject of the original verb is placed in the accusative, and the object of an originally transitive verb is dropped or placed in the genitive or locative case, depending on the verb. The object of an impersonal verb remains in the accusative.</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-3" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>3.</span> Derived Verbs </h2>
<table id="__no-id-63" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 11:</span> Derived Verbs</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mbakhemb</td><td class=" ">to be loud</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">doljo</td><td class=" ">to be fifth</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ndnádeh</td><td class=" ">(of a plant) to grow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hajbbet</td><td class=" ">to wait for (perfective)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">halhtjór</td><td class=" ">to grow (transitive), to farm (habitual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jandéh</td><td class=" ">to notice</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kahdéh</td><td class=" ">to meet</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kjethemb</td><td class=" ">to disagree (always used in the dual)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kʷlekkʷoz</td><td class=" ">to complete</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lajdwens</td><td class=" ">to call, to name</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lárjo</td><td class=" ">to be at <span class="small-caps ">acc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nandhemb</td><td class=" ">to be slow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nájskʷoz</td><td class=" ">to die</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nájsjo</td><td class=" ">to be dead</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋohjo</td><td class=" ">to hide (transitive, imperfective)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">patkʷoz</td><td class=" ">to stand up</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">plohbet</td><td class=" ">to spill</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">prajsbet</td><td class=" ">to differentiate oneself</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pwámshemb</td><td class=" ">to be forgetful</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pwámsjo</td><td class=" ">to allow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ʔájo</td><td class=" ">to be prepared</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sájkjo</td><td class=" ">to be happy, to be content</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sláhhemb</td><td class=" ">to understand</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">slojhemb</td><td class=" ">to be a clean person</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tekhemb</td><td class=" ">to be fast</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">thəlhbet</td><td class=" ">to recall</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">thəlhʔraŋgʷ</td><td class=" ">to actively keep in mind</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tjanjo</td><td class=" ">to have</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tjanʔraŋgʷ</td><td class=" ">to carry</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">wertkʷoz</td><td class=" ">to find</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-4" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>4.</span> Nominalizers </h2>
<table id="__no-id-65" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 12:</span> Nominalizers</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-bɦa</td><td class=" ">method</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-dwe</td><td class=" ">benefactor, recipient</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-gój</td><td class=" ">action</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-ŋger</td><td class=" ">agent, instrument</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-hwək</td><td class=" ">process</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-jəw</td><td class=" ">source, origin (also forms a genitive adverb)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-lar</td><td class=" ">location, destination (also forms a locative adverb)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-ləjd</td><td class=" ">product</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-ŋʷo</td><td class=" ">instrument</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-ʔəh</td><td class=" ">patient</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-ʔoh</td><td class=" ">agent of necessity (i.e., the one who must act as the agent)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-səj</td><td class=" ">state</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-twas</td><td class=" ">experiencer of a state</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-5" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>5.</span> Secondary Nominal Endings </h2>
<table id="__no-id-67" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 13:</span> Secondary Nominal Endings</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-jək</td><td class=" ">small, less threatening</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-má</td><td class=" ">home of</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-təh</td><td class=" ">collective</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">-wá</td><td class=" ">large, grand</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-6" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>6.</span> Nouns </h2>
<table id="__no-id-69" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 14:</span> Nouns</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mbledjotwas</td><td class=" ">elder</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dlonŋʷo</td><td class=" ">wheel</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dméʔəh</td><td class=" ">food</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">doldwe</td><td class=" ">bowl, pot</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ndnátwas</td><td class=" ">leaf, plant</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ndwəlʔəh</td><td class=" ">tree</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gazdtwas</td><td class=" ">rock</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gowŋʷo</td><td class=" ">boat</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋgléŋger</td><td class=" ">fish</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gʷáʔŋger</td><td class=" ">head</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">halhtjórŋger</td><td class=" ">farmer</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">halhtwas</td><td class=" ">wheat</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hartwas</td><td class=" ">sky</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">həstləjd</td><td class=" ">board, plane</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hlowkjəw</td><td class=" ">cow</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hlowkləjd</td><td class=" ">milk</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">howtləjd</td><td class=" ">broth, tea</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hwəsŋger</td><td class=" ">wind</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">janjəw</td><td class=" ">light</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">janŋʷo</td><td class=" ">eye</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jejzhwək</td><td class=" ">day, morning</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jejzʔoh</td><td class=" ">sun (animate)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kálpʔəh</td><td class=" ">necessity</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">káwsəj</td><td class=" ">rain</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kézŋger</td><td class=" ">blacksmith</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kézjəw</td><td class=" ">metal</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ksələjd</td><td class=" ">sand</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ksolŋʷo</td><td class=" ">weapon</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kʷlekgój</td><td class=" ">work, task</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">kʷojjosəj</td><td class=" ">pain</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lajŋʷo</td><td class=" ">name</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">láwsəj</td><td class=" ">darkness, night</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lomlar</td><td class=" ">hill, mountain</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">lówttwas</td><td class=" ">earth</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mámləjd</td><td class=" ">infant</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">məwhhá</td><td class=" ">people</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">məwhhət</td><td class=" ">man, person</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">mortŋger</td><td class=" ">Time (animate), passage of time, extent of time</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nájsjosəj</td><td class=" ">death</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nájslar</td><td class=" ">house</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">nájssəj</td><td class=" ">life</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋánləjd</td><td class=" ">fruit</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋohlar</td><td class=" ">home</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋohŋʷo</td><td class=" ">reed</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pekʷjosəj</td><td class=" ">peace</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pəŋger</td><td class=" ">bull, ox</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">phésʔəh</td><td class=" ">skin</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pláhŋʷo</td><td class=" ">feather</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pregtwas</td><td class=" ">stick</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">psettwas</td><td class=" ">river</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ʔálʔoh</td><td class=" ">god</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ráhŋʷo</td><td class=" ">cloth, clothing</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">rezŋger</td><td class=" ">healer</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">rezŋʷo</td><td class=" ">medicine</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sahŋʷo</td><td class=" ">hand</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sláhŋʷo</td><td class=" ">mind</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">swojŋʷo</td><td class=" ">water</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">təlŋger</td><td class=" ">fire</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tjanlar</td><td class=" ">store</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tneksəj</td><td class=" ">illness</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tolʔoh</td><td class=" ">cook</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tsojʔoh</td><td class=" ">wolf</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">twəlŋger</td><td class=" ">potter</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">twəlŋʷo</td><td class=" ">clay</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-7" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>7.</span> Prepositions </h2>
<table id="__no-id-71" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 15:</span> Prepositions</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">bəh</td><td class=" ">in <span class="small-caps ">loc</span>, on <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hal</td><td class=" ">below <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hetlár</td><td class=" ">west, west of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ɦesp</td><td class=" ">yesterday</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jajzlár</td><td class=" ">east, east of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jem</td><td class=" ">among <span class="small-caps ">loc</span>, into <span class="small-caps ">loc</span>, out of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">khaw</td><td class=" ">north, left, north of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span>, left of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">maʔ</td><td class=" ">away from <span class="small-caps ">gen</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋʷop</td><td class=" ">around <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋʷewd</td><td class=" ">by means of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span>, with support of <span class="small-caps ">gen</span>, for the purpose of <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pləs</td><td class=" ">during <span class="small-caps ">loc</span></td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">wolh</td><td class=" ">surrounded by <span class="small-caps ">gen</span>, in (without external reference) <span class="small-caps ">gen</span></td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-8" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>8.</span> Quantifiers </h2>
<table id="__no-id-73" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 16:</span> Quantifiers</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">the</td><td class=" ">many</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">jək</td><td class=" ">few</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">dlew</td><td class=" ">all</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">həsdlew</td><td class=" ">some</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ŋgʷan</td><td class=" ">more</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">rən</td><td class=" ">1</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ləj</td><td class=" ">2</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">tjeh</td><td class=" ">3</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pət</td><td class=" ">4</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">sah</td><td class=" ">5</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">khen</td><td class=" ">10</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">gʷew</td><td class=" ">100</td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="sec-7-9" class=" "><span class="secnum"><span class="secnum">7.</span>9.</span> Conjunctions </h2>
<table id="__no-id-75" class=""><caption><span class="table-heading-prefix">Table 17:</span> Conjunctions</caption>
<tr class=""><th scope="col" class="not-conlang conlang lexicon-word-col">Word</th><th scope="col" class=" ">Meaning</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ɦesp</td><td class=" ">before</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">hésne</td><td class=" ">without</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">ne</td><td class=" ">with, and</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">pal</td><td class=" ">or (inclusive)</td></tr>
<tr class=""><td class=" conlang lexicon-word-col">zəj</td><td class=" ">that (relativizer)</td></tr>
</table>
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